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Evolution Of The Bric Countries And Their Future Economics Essay

Evolution Of The Bric Countries And Their Future Economics Essay Q1) Map the proposed sequence of evolution of the economy of the BRICS. What indicators might companies monitor to guide their investment and organize their local market operations? In 2001 the Goldman Sachs global economic team in their paper Dreaming with BRICs: The Path to 2050 developed the BRIC theory that groups together the economies of Brazil, Russia, India and China (BRICs). These countries look set to become the dominant economies by 2050. The BRICS have experienced a lot of changes in their economies. Around the middle of the 20th century China witnessed its communist revolution, India became independent, Brazil was controlled by the military for 21 years and Russia came out of the Second World War as a major rival to the US. This was just the starting point for the BRIC economies. Brazil During the financial crisis, Brazil remained very strong and its early recovery, including 2010 growth of 7.5%, has contributed to the countrys transition from a regional to a global power. (www.traveldocs.com) The economy is the worlds eighth-largest and is expected to rise to fifth within the next several years. Brazil is classified as an upper-middle-income country with a GDP (Gross Domestic Product) of à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬973 billion. During the administration of former President Lula, surging exports, economic growth and social programs helped lift tens of millions of Brazilians out of poverty. For the first time, a majority of Brazilians are now middle-class, and domestic consumption has become an important driver of Brazilian growth. The economy of Brazil is characterised by large well developed agricultural, mining, manufacturing sectors and service sectors. The services sector takes the biggest share of their economy (66% of GDP), supplying services for the domestic economy mainly. Brazil has enjoyed sustained economic growth since the year 2004, which has increased the rate of employment and real wages. After an economic growth in 2007 and 2008, the global financial crisis finally hit Brazil however Brazil was one of the first emerging markets to stage a recovery, with GDP growth returning to positive levels. Brazil is becoming a global power like the other BRIC nations. There are a number of reasons for this. Brazil is involved in major manufacturing industries such as aerospace, bio-ethanol and auto-motives. Since 2004, a more outward look policy has been implemented by the government, promoting exports and fostering technological development to increase international competitiveness. In 2008, additional tax incentives for investment, RD and exports were introduced. Since 2003, Brazil has made progress towards putting in place the foundations for growth, with particular emphasis on achieving economic stability. Stabilisation has paid off: inflation has fallen and some progress has been made on reducing the public debt. However, stabilisation has come at a high price. Real GDP growth has averaged only 2.7% since 2003, with the adjustment explaining in part why actual growth rates were lower than the rate of 3.7% used in our BRICs studies. The future for Brazil will be very interesting to see. According to Goldman Sachs, over the next 50 years, Brazils GDP growth rate averages 3.6%. The size of Brazils economy overtakes Italy by 2025, France by 2031 and the UK and Germany by 2036. According to Sachs, Brazil will remain an important destination for fixed income, equities and direct foreign investment inflows, because of the high carry trade, the value of the embedded option on growth, and its sound macroeconomic policies and external credit fundamentals. Brazil is generally open to and encourages foreign investment. It is the largest recipient of foreign direct investment (FDI) in Latin America, and the United States is traditionally the top foreign investor in Brazil. Since domestic savings are not sufficient to sustain long-term high growth rates, Brazil must continue to attract FDI, especially as the government plans to invest billions of dollars in off-shore oil, nuclear power, and other infrastructure sectors over the next few years. The major international athletic competitions that Brazil will host every year until the 2016 Rio Olympics are also leading the government to invest in roads, airports, sports facilities, and other areas. Russia Russia is currently the 6th largest economy in the world in terms of purchasing power. They are the worlds 2nd largest oil producing country with up to 14% of world proved oil in reserves and 36% of world gas reserves. A lot has happened in Russia in the last 10 to 20 years. The Russian economy underwent tremendous stress in the 1990s as it moved from a centrally planned economy to a free market system. Difficulties in implementing fiscal reforms aimed at raising government revenues and a dependence on short-term borrowing to finance budget deficits led to a serious financial crisis in 1998. Lower prices for Russias major export earners (oil and minerals) and a loss of investor confidence due to the Asian financial crisis exacerbated financial problems. The result was a rapid and steep decline (60%) in the value of the ruble, flight of foreign investment, delayed payments on sovereign and private debts, a breakdown of commercial transactions through the banking system, and the threat of runaway inflation. With oil prices low and the economy in a deep recession, the government was unable to collect taxes to cover its large expenditure commitments. The government embarked on a rapid privatisation of state-owned assets, in a struggle for control of the most valuable assets. After the collapse of the USSR in 1991, the world community supported a plan of economic reform. However in 1992 Russia became plagued with serious poverty and political conflict. This hampered their efforts for global reform. Despite all the pitfalls, there has been significant growth in their economy in recent years. In fact the Russian economy has been booming in the past decade Russian GDP growth exceeded 8% in 2007; even in 2008, when the global financial turmoil started to bite, GDP growth still reached 5.6%. During the past five years, real GDP increased by more than 40%. 2010 saw Russias economy return to growth with a 3.8% increase in GDP. Russias Economic Development Ministry predicts that the nations GDP will grow 4.2% in 2011. In 2007, a new long-term development programme and a new industrial policy, respectively, was launched, aiming at the diversification of the production structure towards (high-tech) manufacturing by improving the investment climate, promoting public private partnership and investing more in infrastructure. From essentially a government led and government controlled economy to something of a more free market base and international trading economy was the starting point towards the Russian economy which we see today. Russia is now an emerging market worthy of the same breath as the other BRIC nations. The success in Russia can be seen through companies investing here. Examples of Russian investments include Novartis who have committed $500 million to be invested over a 5 year period. The centrepiece of this agreement is the creation of a manufacturing plant in St. Petersburg. Foreign direct investment (FDI) in 2009 fell to less than $40 billion after reaching an all-time high of $75 billion in 2008. Much of the FDI in recent years was Russian capital. Moreover, although the annual flow of FDI into Russia was in line with those of China, India, and Brazil, Russias per capita cumulative FDI lagged far behind such countries as Hungary, Poland, and the Czech Republic. Most foreign mergers and acquisitions in 2009 were in the politically sensitive energy sector, largely because of the huge capital requirements required relative to other sectors. By the end of 2010, analysts predicted that the total FDI for the year would again top $40 billion, but not reach the levels seen in 2008. (Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs, 2011) India India has fared the global financial crisis remarkably well. Despite the 2008-2009 downturn, the government expects the annual GDP  growth to return to around 9%. Indias population is estimated at more than 1.1 billion and is growing at 1.55% a year. It has the worlds 12th largest economyand the third largest in Asia behind Japan and Chinawith total GDP in 2008 of around $1.21 trillion ($1,210 billion). Services, industry, and agriculture account for 54%, 29%, and 18% of GDP. Since 2003, India has been one of the fastest major growing economies in the world. Its economic development is essentially service-led, supported by exports of services (especially IT-enabled services); manufacturing exports are relatively small and are concentrated on a few sectors only. India is capitalizing on its large numbers of well-educated people skilled in the English language to become a major exporter of software services and software workers, but more than half of the population depends on agriculture for its livelihood. India continues to move forward with economic reforms that began in 1991. Reforms include foreign investment and exchange regimes, industrial decontrol, reductions in tariffs and other trade barriers, opening and modernization of the financial sector, significant adjustments in government monetary and fiscal policies, and more safeguards for intellectual property rights. The economy has posted an average growth rate of more than 7% in the decade since 1997, reducing poverty by about 10 percent. India achieved 9.6% GDP growth in 2006, 9.0% in 2007, and 6.6% in 2008, significantly expanding manufactures through late 2008. Growth for the fiscal year ending March 31, 2009 was initially expected to be between 8.5-9.0%, but has been revised downward by a number of economists to 7.0% or less because of the financial crisis and resulting global economic slowdown. However economic growth is hampered by inadequate infrastructure, bureaucracy, corruption, low wages, regulatory and foreign investment controls. India  could become the worlds  third largest economy  by purchasing power parity (PPP), overtaking  Japan  in 2012.  This would be almost 20 years ahead of Goldman Sachs projection of 2032 in its BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India, China) report.   India is also expected to grow faster than  China  after 2020. China, which was projected to become the worlds largest economy by 2041, now looks set to achieve the distinction sometime around 2020. Foreign investment is particularly sought after in power generation, telecommunications, ports, roads, petroleum exploration/processing, and mining. Indias external debt was nearly $230 billion by the end of 2008, up from $126 billion in 2005-2006. Foreign assistance was approximately $3 billion in 2006-2007, with the United States providing about $126 million in development assistance. The World Bank plans to double aid to India to almost $3 billion a year, with focus on infrastructure, education, health, and rural livelihoods. China China is seen as the most continuous civilisation in history, not just in terms of politics but also in terms of cultural continuity. The country has a tragic history marked by economic decline, political instability, military humiliation and social regression. China was seen as an economic disaster. This is not only due to the Civil War and Japanese invasion but also due to the plans of the Cultural Revolution. Between the end of the 18th century and the 1960s, Chinas GDP fell from nearly one third of the worlds GDP to less than 5% and only managed to recover in the 2000s. Between 1976 and 2004, China achieved an average GDP growth rate of 9.6%. No other country has experienced such a rapid increase in living standards and working conditions. (Overholt, 2005) Now we have a China that supports economic reform and a China that joins the IMF (International Monetary Fund), World Bank and WTO (World Trade Organisation). But more importantly we have a China that believes in political stability, free trade and free investment. The success of China can be associated with liberalisation and globalisation. In 2004 international trade accounted for 70 percent of Chinas GDP, as compared with 24 percent for Japan. Chinas economic development is driven by manufacturing exports and by investments. (Including infrastructure) Foreign Direct Investment plays an important role, especially for exports. Recently outward FDI, mainly to secure raw materials, has been increasing. Although generating fast growth for over 30 years, the Chinese economic system has come under criticism recently because of rising income inequalities, rapidly increasing energy demands and external imbalances. (O Regan Herciu, 2010) China has also established competition as a very important economic practice. (Failoa, 2009) By incorporating local brands into Chinese local culture it has given China a competitive advantage over countries that are less educated. Education is very important in a nations competitive advantage. It is easier to start operations in a nation with a trained workforce, than in nations where time-consuming and costly training is necessary. China has had great success in promoting first, second and third level education. In fact it is the success of China that is influencing its neighbors like India. India has learned from China the advantages of a more economy open economy. Chinese growth has brought American companies new markets. Their booming economy has attracted firms from Europe, North America, and Asia that are eager to sell their products to the countrys 1.2 billion resident. (Griffin and Pustay, 2005) Like the other BRIC nations, China also faces challenges for the future. In order for China to continue to be recognized internationally as a global power it must reform its areas on human rights. It must also continue to reform state run enterprises. Currently Chinas banking system is the worst in the world. Other than that the future of globalization for China is looking very bright. As Napoleon Bonaparte once said 200 years ago let China sleep, for when she wakes, she will shake the world. (Wolf, 2006). These large emerging economies are playing a huge role in the world economy. The BRICS economies are on the verge of the rapid growth of their consumer markets. (Experience indicates that consumer demand takes off when GNI per capita reaches levels between $3,000 and $10,000 per year.) In Russia there is already significant evidence of the growth of consumerism during the past decade. There are also early signs of similar trends in China and India, where the growth of their middle classes is very rapid. It is expected that within a decade or so, each of the BRICs will show higher returns, increased demand for capital, and stronger national currencies. Rising incomes in the BRICs nations will create a new middle consumer class. Growth in the middle class will be led by China, where number of people entering the middle class is accepted to peak during this decade. Meanwhile, middle class growth in India will accelerate throughout this decade. As China and India are the worlds two most populous countries, rising incomes there will have much greater impact on global demand than any other countries could. Other BRICs (and other emerging markets) will also see a rising middle class in the next decade, and should also see a rising upper class. With the explosion of the middle classes, spending patterns are likely to change. Thus, foreign firms will want to monitor major economic indicators such as GNI (Gross National Income), PPP (Purchasing Power Parity), and the Human Development Index, as well as developments in the cultural, political, and legal environments of those nations in order to guide their investments and organise their local market operations. Q2) What are the implications of the emergence of the BRICs to careers and companies in your country? The implications of the emergence of the BRICs to careers and companies can be analysed by looking at the opportunities and threats for Ireland. In the last year, Ireland like many other countries has been affected by the global economic crisis. The emergence of the BRIC countries can offer huge benefits for Ireland and the BRIC countries can gain a lot by interacting with Ireland. Research shows that the BRIC countries struggle with innovation due to shortages of human capital, limited access to the latest technology, and limited access to capital. These disadvantages can be overcome by the BRICs interacting with countries that do have access to an innovative and highly skilled work-force, lime Ireland. During this time of global financial turmoil, emerging markets will be the main driver of economic growth in future years. Currently the BRIC nations offer some of the most exciting investment opportunities in the world. However, according to figures from the Central Statistics Office, from January 2008 to Oct 2010, the share of Irish trade with the BRICs constituted less that 4% of our overall external trade. (Central Statistics Office) Yet, in terms of potential growth and income, the BRICs represent an opportunity for Ireland. Ireland has a solid reputation for being business friendly to foreign investors as it seeks to attract investment to create jobs. Ireland has the potential to further grow our existing key markets in high-growth and high-potential markets, such as Brazil, Russia, India and China. Key strengths for Ireland include our strong entrepreneurial culture, an educated and highly skilled workforce, a favourable taxation regime, EU membership, our track record in attracting FDI, our strong indigenous sector, and our reputation as a premium tourist destination. Key challenges are in the areas of cost competitiveness, access, transport links, telecommunications infrastructure and banking links. The BRIC group of countries will play an important role in Irelands trade, investment and tourism strategy for the years ahead, reflecting changes in the global economy. In order to create jobs in Ireland, it may be necessary to engage in ventures with, and in the other BRIC nations, firstly, Brazil. (www.labour.ie) Despite Brazils economic success, it is fair to say that the level of trade and investment between Brazil and Ireland does not match the potential of both countries. In fact, while total trade reached US$ 202 billion between January and October 2009, bilateral trade was only US$ 670 million (US$ 265 million exports from Brazil and US$ 404 million imports from Ireland). As export-led growth is the only sustainable route for Ireland, the growing Brazilian demand and the valuation of the Real (Brazils national currency) will certainly ensure high levels of imports in the coming years. On the other hand, Brazil is an important and competitive world supplier of both manufactured and primary goods, as well as a significant service provider. Therefore, more could enter the Irish market. (The Embassy of Brazil in Ireland, 2011) Enterprise Irelands trade mission to Brazil back in November 2010 is an example of the successful relationship between the two countries. The trade mission had brought 34 Irish companies to Brazil with an aim to increase export sales to this vast market. Enterprise Ireland said the country holds huge business opportunities for Irish firms as Brazil is in the middle of major modernisation, infrastructure and development projects. Some examples of Irish companies setting up in Brazil include, Louth Company, Suretank. This company won a contract worth à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬900,000 to supply its cargo carrying units to ISEW, a major supplier of tanks and containers to the oil and gas exploration industry. Also Monaghans Combilift has secured a deal valued at à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬800,000 with Brazilian steel giant Gerdau. Not only are Brazil gaining foreign investment but they are also gaining valuable expertise from Ireland. Its important that Ireland keep up this relationship with Brazil and if there are more opportunities for companies to open new markets, they should. Russia is Europes largest emerging market and the 11th largest economy in the world and continues to offer opportunities to Irish companies. It is a key export market for Irish businesses in sectors such as ICT, engineering, aviation and aerospace, education and training, the life sciences, construction and building services and food and beverages. With the rapid emergence of Russia as one of the BRICs, Ireland continues to benefit from this with more companies both Russian and Irish locating here and in Russia, providing many jobs in different sectors of Industry. Irish companies are responding to the worldwide economic slowdown by actively developing opportunities in new markets. While Russia has not been immune to the current economic difficulties, the continued economic development of Russia has resulted in a much wider range of business and commercial opportunities for Irish companies. Irish exports to Russia continue to grow year-on-year and combined exports of goods and service are now over à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬1.3bn. Irish-owned SMEs export more to Russia than any of the other BRIC countries. According to Enterprise Irelands Head of International Sales and Partnering Gerry Murphy, there are particular opportunities for RD collaboration between the two countries, Ireland and Russia have a very similar national research and development goals, with a strong focus on funding research in nanotechnology, life sciences and ICT. There is considerable scope for Irish educational institutions to build linkages with Russian universities in joint programmes and the commercialisation of Russian RD. Such linkages could benefit both Ireland and Russia, as both countries continue to build knowledge-based economies. (Enterprise Ireland, 2009) It is vital, Ireland continue its trade links with Russia. This relationship will offer huge employment opportunities for people in Ireland and Russia. The political relationship between both countries also contributes to the deepening of the trade-economic cooperation. (Russia IC, 2008) Like the other BRIC countries, India also offers some opportunities to Irish companies and careers. India is a land of opportunity for Irish software and IT companies. Significant potential exists for increasing trade between Ireland and India particularly through software, information technology and e-Business partnerships. India is not only a major market in itself for Irish business but it is also seen by Irish companies as offering an excellent opportunity for developing business, products and markets internationally. Many Irish companies are taking a greater interest in India and Indian companies are also looking towards Ireland. India could provide a safety valve for the Irish Software industry which is currently experiencing a skills shortage in certain disciplines. However Ireland has to compete with the United States and other countries for this talent. The government of Ireland has identified India as a country in Irelands Asia Strategy, and this new thrust could be utilised to increase economic and commercial relations. Indian businesses could exploit the opportunities of investment in Ireland provided by its membership of the European Union, its low corporate tax and its tax incentives for investment in innovation, research and new technologies. Not only that but Ireland is becoming a significant destination in Europe for Indian students for higher education, particularly for post-graduate, doctoral and post-doctoral studies in the areas of engineering/technology and management studies. About 1200 Indian students are currently studying in Ireland. Because of the high quality of higher education institutions in Ireland, there is considerable promise for bilateral linkages between higher education institutions, particularly in science and engineering. Concerted efforts are under way to promote and intensify such linkages. The emergence of India will benefit Ireland hugely in both employment opportunities and investment opportunities for Irish businesses.

How Liberalism ideology relates to social work

How Liberalism ideology relates to social work How Liberalism ideology relates to social work practice The history and influence of Liberalism is a complex issue, and understanding social work practice involves penetrating a vast nexus of theoretical and practical socio-political factors. Nevertheless, addressing the specific question of how Liberalism relates to social work practice reveals important and distinct points for discussion. In this essay I will outline the historical developments of Liberalism and highlight the core beliefs and how they influence social work. I aim to argue that exposing the liberal ideological values inherent in social work opens up latent tensions to debate. The tensions in liberal political theory and the concomitant problems for social work don’t call for abandonment of Liberalism ideology because it has as its basis the appropriate capacity for renewal. These debates should stimulate reappraisal and reform and increase our capacity to influence the social, political and economic determinants of social care. This can be achieved due to not in spite of the underlying principles of Liberalism. The historical development of Liberalism While the editors of the Spanish Constitution in 1812 were the first to use the noun liberal in a political sense, the war of independence in America established the first nation to craft a constitution based on Liberalism. This new creed originated in the political philosophy of the previous three hundred years. Liberalism emerged from the breakdown of feudalism, the growth of market capitalism and the rise of the middle class. Liberals sought to expose the immorality of authoritarianism and limit government powers in order to safeguard civil liberties. Where early Liberals sought total non-intervention, modern liberals endorse involved governance on issues such as welfare, education and healthcare. This has led to a split between the early classical Liberalism and the modern form which dominates contemporary politics today. Nevertheless, classical and modern Liberalism share core beliefs which point to underlying principles. These principles perpetuate every aspect of contemporary life in Western political systems. Ideas such as individualism, tolerance and economic freedom are central to the western political ideology of our times. The core beliefs of Liberalism ‘As political beings it is our business to free human life from as many as possible of its difficulties’ (Mill Principles of political philosophy in collected works II p.943) Liberalism holds that individuals are the locus of moral consideration, and securing individual freedom is paramount. An extreme form of liberal individualism; atomism holds that the individual is central to socio-political theory or practice, ontologically prior to society, egotistic, self seeking and self reliant. Modern Liberalism has a more optimistic bent in its understanding of social responsibility and mutual respect. Political Liberalism stresses the social contract[1], under which citizens make the laws and agree to abide by those laws. It is based on the belief that individuals know best what is best for them. This is the characteristic theme of liberal ideology, and ideas of justice and freedom stem from the primacy of the individual. Rationalism[2] greatly influenced the liberal concept of an individual. The idea of a rational man was an important precursor to social non-intervention, as the rational man is capable of defining and pursuing his own path in society, rendering the idea of a paternal government unnecessary. Modern liberals appreciate the inequality of self reliance and seek to strike a balance between intervention and decentralisation. The emphasis on and openness to reason in liberal societies emanates from the many dichotomies at its heart: On one hand natural man is seen as rational and socially conscious, while on the other egotistic and selfish. One the one hand men are capable on the other needy. This tension in Liberalism is reflected by the fact that is has met with discussion, debate and argument since its inception. A willingness to offer reasoned explanations for its theories is central to liberal ideology. Liberalism favours neutral government, in that it is not for the state to determine personal values. As John Rawls put it in his Theory of Justice, ‘The state has no right to determine a particular conception of the good life’ (Rawls 1999). The idea of the good life has been used in political philosophy to denote a course of action the rational man takes when in favourable political circumstances. Rawls argues that liberal governments should provide these favourable conditions but never attempt to dictate how citizens should go about the acquisition of happiness. This idea of neutrality is closely connected to tolerance, and in particular the willingness to celebrate political and religious diversity. Since the developments in economics in the late 18th century Liberals have stressed the importance of a free markets, and seek to limit government intervention in domestic economy and foreign trade. In Andrew Heywood’s words the attraction of classical economics to liberal ideology ‘was that, although each individual is materially self-interested, the economy itself is though to operate according to a set of impersonal pressures – market forces – that tend naturally to promote economic prosperity and well being.’ (Heywood 1987) Modern liberals support government responsibility for health, education, and alleviating poverty yet still call for a market based on independent exchange and tend to believe in decentralisation. The central tenets of modern Liberalism are the primacy of the individual, freedom, tolerance, a commitment to reason and debate, and a free-market economy. Liberalism is egalitarian; based on principles of democracy, classlessness, equality and openness, and is antonymous to oppressive and tyrannical authoritarianism. Liberalism advocates civil rights for all citizens: establishing justice though the protection and privileges of personal liberty. It includes the equal treatment of all citizens irrespective of race, gender and class. These core beliefs directly influence much of day to day life, but we will focus on the implications for the practice of social work. Social work and Liberal ideology Social work is a discipline involving the application of social theory and research methods to societal problems. It incorporates and uses other social sciences and political philosophy as a means to improve the human condition and positively change society's response to these problems, through understanding and acting upon their causes, solutions and human impacts. What constitutes a social problem? And what constitutes a solution to a social problem? In the western world the answers to these questions stem from governmental policy based on the principles of Liberalism. In a modern liberal society a social problem is one that contradicts the core liberal principles. A solution is that which removes the restrictions to people flourishing. For these reasons ideology implicit in societal interactions effects what we know as social problems and solutions. Poverty and alienation are profound social problems and major causes of suffering in modern society. Taking poverty, Liberalism ideology believes that every individual should have the freedom to succeed economically, and not live in poverty. We have seen already that while early Liberals emphasised non-intervention, modern liberals endorse more involved governance on issues such as welfare. This reflects a central tension in the practical applicability of Liberalism ideology highlighted by Maureen Ramsey in her book what’s wrong with Liberalism? ‘Since both forms of Liberalism endorse private ownership, the economic redistribution required to tackle poverty will inevitable infringe particular individual rights to liberty’ (1997, pg66). The emphasis on individual liberty and progress at the heart of liberal capitalist economies has been accused of perpetuating this tension. Furthermore, welfare as a concept contradicts the moral neutrality that is central to the pr inciple of tolerance in Liberalism. By providing a range of services designed to bring about the public good the state is making judgements about what is good, beyond the self seeking satisfaction of subjective desires. This leads Ramsey to conclude that ‘the provision of welfare [is] at odds with basic liberal assumptions’ (pg, 66). Examples from social work where the right to escape poverty is being restricted could include a daughter being held back from going to school to work for her parents, or a wife not being permitted to work. Social workers’ ability to address these problems is influenced by the traditional liberal distinction between the public and the private spheres by which liberal governments should only function in the public sphere, excluding the activities of family life. Modern liberals attempt to strike a balance between intervention and non intervention. However, because of the tensions concerning the private sphere, political neutrality and accountability, this balance remains problematic. Many agree with Pateman that these restrictions render care ineffective and the areas of social work that can deal with poverty are too limited.[3] ‘Precisely because Liberalism conceptualises civil society in abstraction from ascriptive domestic life, the latter remains forgotten.’ (Pa teman, 1987 p. 107) The liberal legacy of limited intervention and reason has resulted in an often debilitating caution concerning social work, even in the more extreme areas of its application. Taking the examples of ‘baby p’ and Victoria Climbià © the social services have been accused of being too optimistic about the intentions of citizens and missing the signs that could have helped them avoid such awful tragedies.[4] However, intuitions support the distance between the private and the public spheres. The idea of children being taken away from their parents is invariably seen as a last resort, a relaxation of this attitude may have saved many children, but it may also create other awful situations in which children are taken away from good families. It would demand more care and attention to complex detail than necessary for our purposes here to question the role of political ideology in these terrible events. Alienation is another complicated issue facing modern liberal society. Liberal ideology does not have a core belief connected with the negativity of isolation because of an understanding of human nature that emphasises the priority of the individual. This is often seen as a deficiency as many hold that the intuitions constructed by Liberalism have produced a situation where individuals have shallower relations with other people than they would normally. This, it is argued, leads to difficulties in understanding and adapting to each other's uniqueness. This points to another of the tensions within Liberalism: it promotes tolerance but through its emphasis on individual freedom encourages isolation. Many sociologists are concerned about the alienating effects of modernization, describing how relationships become mediated through money because economic freedom is considered an essential element of individual liberty. This has also been accused of contributing to the loss of primary relationships such as familial bonds in favour of goal oriented secondary relationships. The concepts of the private sphere, individual freedom, tolerance and political neutrality greatly affect what we deem to be within the role of a social worker. The balance between intervention and personal freedom rests as precariously now as any time since Mill. Free market capitalism is at its weakest in decades, giving new impetus to the charge that economic Liberalism is guilty of creating a more selfish society where the pursuit of personal wealth is more destructive that constructive. Is liberal ideology repressive? Liberalism is accused of repressing positive aspects of human nature. To call Liberal ideology repressive though, is extreme. Liberalism allows for repressive forces to emerge due to its emphasis on individual liberty and freedom of speech and thought, but allowing repressive tendencies to emerge is not adhering to them, and liberal societies should not be blamed for the emergence of alternative ideologies within them. Social and corporate responsibility are genuine possibilities in liberal society and are prevalent in modern liberal theory. There are problems with Liberalism, but I suggest they do not serve as aspects of a repressive ideology. We ought to remember that Liberalism emerged from the compassionate desire to eradicate authoritarian rule in order to secure freedom for every man. This is a noble aspiration with compassion for all at its core. As industrialisation and free market economies took over, the role of welfare in liberal states became important because of the same aspirations, to help every single person in a society. The change from non-intervention to intervention evidences the claim that ideologies have to adapt to contexts, and this is where Liberalism has a unique quality, a profound capacity for renewal. The classic versus modern Liberalism debate could only occur in the climate of discussion debate and argument that defined the rationalist movement. The tensions in Liberalism were inherited from this theoretical foundation and have maintained their capacity for renewal. The tensions in Liberali sm reflect the scope for continual reappraisal, it is not dogmatic, and is open to public scrutiny through the democratic process. Challenges are being made and listened to within liberal society. For example, the Social liberals[5] introduced scepticism concerning the idea of free markets, seeing unrestricted trade as leading to the growth of multi-national corporations and the concentration of wealth and power in the hands of the few, seen as contradicting the intention of liberty for all. These socially responsible tendencies are not entirely new editions to liberal theory and in fact are latent in political Liberalism. While the early Liberals like Locke saw liberty as a natural right, Liberalism has never held that the entitlement to freedom is absolute. In On Liberty ([1859] 1972, p.73) Mill argued that ‘power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community [If it] is to prevent harm from others’. Liberalism emerged as a move away from blind adherence to political dogma based on static views of a divine ordered reality, towards a scientific and compassionate concern for every citizen. To conclude that Liberalism must involve repression is excessive given the underlying desire to stand for the opposite. Conclusion. The practice of social work in modern liberal society rests on liberal principles. By locating the connections between social work and Liberalism ideology, we have seen how practical social knowledge is influenced by liberal philosophical assumptions. These central tenets of Liberalism are liberty, tolerance, and a free-market economy. These core beliefs affect all areas of social life, including social work. The tensions that permeate the practices of liberal governments are present in the field of social work and valuable indicators of the complexity of the issues social workers face. Crucially, they are open to reform. There are deep social problems in liberal society, of which poverty and alienation are paramount. What we can learn from these problems is that if Liberalism will succeed in its aspirations it needs to expand its scope to include more social and corporate responsibility, and a greater understanding of community. The emphasis on the individual, particularly in the economic brand of Liberalism, can repress aspects of human nature that seem central to the compassion and egalitarianism that motivated the creation of liberal theories. If empathy and care are a consequence of our social nature then we need an account of the individual as interdependent, opposed to the atomised individual of classic liberal theory. The tensions in liberal political theory and the concomitant problems for social work don’t call for abandonment of Liberalism ideology because it has as its basis the appropriate mechanisms to progress: democracy and education, the capacity for renewal and the compassionate aspiration to secure freedom. They call for reappraisal and reform. Bibliography Political Ideologies an introduction Heywood, Andrew. Palgrave 1992 Liberalism and modern society Bellamy, Richard. Polity press 1992 What’s wrong with Liberalism Ramsay, Maureen. Leicester University Press 1997 A Theory of Justice revised edition Rawls, John. OUP 1999 After Virtue MacIntyre, Alasdair. Duckworth 1981 Feminist critiques of the public/private dichotomy in Feminism and inequality Phillips A (ed) Blackwell 1987. 1 Footnotes [1] Thomas Hobbes’ Leviathan saw the first use of the social contract. [2] In its broadest sense rationalism is any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification. Here it denotes the enlightenment philosophical movement of Hume Kant etc. [3] Such as income assistance and job training/placement. [4] The GMC examined the role of Dr Sabah Al-Zayyat, who examined Baby P two days before his death has been accused of failing to spot his injuries, and three council workers were given written warnings about their actions. Source: Haringey Council Internal Audit Serious Case Review. Haringey Council (2008-11-12). [5] In Britain, in the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, a group of thinkers known as the social or new liberals who included John Stuart Mill, argued that the poverty and ignorance people lived in made it impossible for freedom and individuality to flourish. They believed that these conditions could be ameliorated only through collective action coordinated by a strong welfare-oriented interventionist state.

Scotland at the time of Robert Burns :: essays research papers

Burns was born just before George III came to the throne in 1760. America declared her independence when Burns was 17 and the Paris mob sacked the Bastille to start the French Revolution in 1789, when the poet was 30. Revolutionary ideas were in the air during the life of Burns and he was affected by this trend. Scotland and England had only finally joined through the Union of the Parliaments in1707 and there was still a resentment against the loss of independence which has continued to the present day. The years after the Union had not been quiet ones and rebellions had taken place in 1715 and 1745 ending in the disaster at the Battle of Culloden in 1746 which effectively destroyed the Jacobites and the clan system is in the Highlands, But by the second half of the eighteenth century things had begun slowly to change for the better in Scotland. Agriculture, industry and trade began to expand in the first stages of the Industrial Revolution which was to transform Scotland over the next hundred years. Around the time of Burns birth the average Scot lived in the country and worked the land. This average person would travel no more than 20 miles from their own birthplace in the course of their lifetime. When Burns wrote about the land described experiences that were real for the vast majority of the Scottish People who still struggled to make a living from it. At the time, from around 1740 onwards, Edinburgh became famous throughout Europe as a centre for philosophy, medicine, science and publishing during what came to be known as the "Scottish Enlightenment". Burns may have been born into a humble family but he wasn’t uneducated. He was well read in literature and politics, knew something of foreign languages and the classics and had a keen ear for music.

An Apology From Socrates :: Philosophy

The Apology is Socrates' defense at his trial. As the dialogue begins, Socrates notes that his accusers have cautioned the jury against Socrates' eloquence, according to Socrates, the difference between him and his accusers is that Socrates speaks the truth. Socrates distinguished two groups of accusers: the earlier and the later accusers. The earlier group is the hardest to defend against, since they do not appear in court. He is all so accused of being a Sophist: that he is a teacher and takes money for his teaching. He attempts to explain why he has attracted such a reputation. The oracle was asked if anyone was wiser than Socrates was. The answer was no, there was no man wiser. Socrates cannot believe this oracle, so he sets out to disprove it by finding someone who is wiser. He goes to a politician, who is thought wise by him self and others. Socrates does not think this man to be wise and tells him so. As a consequence, the politician hated Socrates, as did others who heard the questioning. "I am better off, because while he knows nothing but thinks that he knows, I neither know nor think that I know" (Socrates). He questioned politicians, poets, and artisans. He finds that the poets do not write from wisdom, but by genius and inspiration. Meletus charges Socrates with being "a doer of evil, and corrupter of the youth, and he does not believe in the gods of the State, and has other new divinities of his own." In his examination of Meletus, Socrates makes three main points: 1) Meletus has accused Socrates of being the only corrupter, while everyone else improves the youth. Socrates then uses an analogy: a horse trainer is to horses as an improver is to the youth. The point is that there is only one improver, not many. 2) If Socrates corrupts the youth, either it is intentional or unintentional. No one would corrupt his neighbor intentionally, because he would harm himself in the process. If the corruption was unintentional, then the court is not the place to resolve the problem. The other possibility is that he does not corrupt them at all. 3) In frustration, Meletus accuses Socrates of being "a complete atheist," at the same time he claims Socrates teaches new gods. Thus, Meletus contradicts himself. Socrates argues that fear of death is foolish, because it is not known if death is a good or an evil, thus there is no reason to fear death.

Final Study Guide for Livanis Intl 1101

INTL 1101 Final Exam Study Guide Americanization – Consumerism, individualism – American products and values – Cultural imperialism? Trying to homogenize world? McDonaldization – Fast-food principles dominant in American and other societies – Uniform standards – Lack of human creativity – Dehumanization of social relations Infantilization – Benjamin Barber â€Å"consumed† – Against â€Å"ethos of infantilization† that sustains global capitalism – Turning of adults into children through dumbed down advertising and consumer goods – Targeting children as consumers Homogeneous global products for young and wealthy, and for children => soulless and unethical global consumerism in pursuit of profit Cultural homogenization – â€Å"More alike† theory of effects of globalization – Western culture industry – Homogenization of popular culture – Can be within western soci eties (McDonaldization) Market for loyalties – Regulation of communications to organize cartels of imagery – Domestic broadcast regulation maintains distribution of power – National identity reframed to political views and cultural attitudes that maintain existing power structure Facilitates predominance of one ideology Cultural imperialism – World patterns of cultural flow, mirror the system of domination in world economic and political order – Not confined to the west: see Mexico, Brazil (Latin America), India (East Asia), Hong Kong, Taiwan (China) Sustainable development – Long-term economic growth depends on careful stewardship of the natural environment – Environmentalists – Liberalization= unequal economic growth, resources for debt, competition (race to the bottom), increased pollution, unsustainable consumption of resources, political unrest – Free Trade Trade promotes growth and alleviates poverty= environmental benefits – Elimination of trade barriers= increased value of resources – Environmental progress is easier to achieve under conditions of prosperity Deterritiorlization of religion – Primarily caused by migration – The case of Islam: – Muslim Ummah – Re-islamisation as deculturalisation of Islam (not linked to a particular pristine culture, global Islam) – Quest for definition: Islam to fit every culture – By bridging the gap between secularism and religiosity, Fundamentalism overstretches religion to the point that it cannot become embedded in real cultureFree trade and the environment Technological Change and Disease – Transportation – Short term travel: 940 million tourists – Meningitis: 70,000 pilgrims to Mecca every year, secondary pandemics upon return – Expensive diseases in developing countries and eradicated diseases in developed countries – Medical technologies – Greater colla boration, more information – BUT, new technologies can be badly used – Ebola in DRC, AIDS epidemics in China from unsterilized needles Demographic Change and Disease – Population mobility Conditions that lead people to move are the same that favor the emergence of infections (poverty, overcrowding, unsanitary conditions, state failure) – Refugees: sanitation, food, healthcare – 50,000 dead in a month (Rwanda, 1994) – Haiti: cholera from Nepal? (4,800 mortalities) – Long-term migration – Disease to non-immune populations, and transfer of new disease back home – Eradicated diseases re-introduced – Migrant workers in Africa (AIDS epidemics) – Urbanization – Megacities=megaspread Global economy and disease – Global trade IMF/structural adjustments and liberalization reduces the role of governments (mostly in providing healthcare) – Trade in food – Change in dietary habits, convergenc e of tastes – Demand for year-round availability of fresh fruit and vegetables – Products from less expensive labor markets, worldwide ingredients and transport – Food may be contaminated – Unhygienic irrigation, packaging practices, storage, non-indigenous crops more susceptible to indigenous pathogens – E-coli in Germany: 2,800 affected, 26 dead (91 in EU) – Mad Cow Disease Environmental change and disease Climate change-global warming – Higher ambient air temperature, precipitation/humidity (mosquitoes) – Water supply-dams etc – Profound ecological changes that affects disease vectors-most dams associated with increase in malaria – Deforestation – Increases contact between humans and pathogens – Decreases natural predators of disease vectors – Increases in malaria (runoff water stagnant in pools) – Loss of biodiversity Jihad and McWorld – Dialectical nature: one cannot exist w ithout the other – Babel: retribalization – Global jihad against globalization – Disneyland Globalizations – Jihad and McWorld make war on the sovereign nation state – Indifference to civil liberty – McWorld, focus on consumption and â€Å"invisible hand† for common good (rather than democratic institutions), repeal government regulations – Jihad, bloody politics of identity, exclusion and hatred, paternalism and tribalism – Neither global markets nor blood communities service public goods or pursue equality and justice – Future? – In the short run – Jihad likely to dominate? – In the long run – McWorld dominates? – Convergence of political ideologies? Triumph of liberalism? Convergence of political cultures? Triumph of Western individualism? – Or greater divergence and even conflict? Ethnicity – High ethnic solidarity: willing to redistribute resources within the g roup – No â€Å"master list†; what differentiates groups in one place may not be important in another – Example: in Serbia, common language and culture, but religion divides (Hutu and Tutsi) – Ethnicity as a â€Å"social construction†Ã¢â‚¬â€not inherently political Ethnic identity – Any specific attributes and societal institutions that make one group of people culturally different from others Language, religion, geography, customs, history, and others – Ascription—an identity assigned at birth – Largely fixed during our lives Clash of civilizations – Samuel Huntington: â€Å"The Clash of Civilizations† – â€Å"The next world war, if there is one, will be a war between civilizations† – De-Westernization and indigenization of societies – Hinduization of India and Islamic fundamentalism (Iran, Algeria, Egypt, Turkey) – The Confucian-Islamic connection – Kin-country s yndrome (Bosnia, Iraq) – Civilizations do not control states; states control civilizations Interpreted the same events as Fukuyama, but made very different conclusions †¦ — Outlined 7 main cultures (and a possible 8th); equates â€Å"culture† with â€Å"religion†: â€Å"people who share ethnicity and language but differ in religion may slaughter each other, as happened in Lebanon, the former Yugoslavia, and the Subcontinent. † 1. Western 2. Confucian 3. Japanese 4. Islamic 5. Hindu 6. Slavic-Orthodox 7. Latin American 8. Possibly African – Why will they clash? – Differences are both real and basic (â€Å"fundamental†) – World smaller due to globalization – Nation-state as source of identity grows weaker Fundamentalist religion grows stronger – Backlash against West enhances civilization consciousness – Cultural differences less easily compromised than political and economic ones (can you be both Catholic and Muslim? ) – Economic regionalism is growing – Result: unable to mobilize support for governments based on ideology, turn to religion and civilization identity Environmentalism and the developing south Collectivity Irreducibility Characteristics of environmental issues – Complexity – Interpenetration, pollution down the road. – Temporal and spatial uncertainty – What will happen in the future, how much is it going to affect us. Irreducibility – Holistic in nature, we cannot approach only one part, we have to consider them as a whole. – Spontaneity – Things tend to happen fast especially in environmental disasters. – Collectivity – Collective action problems, common pool resources, shirking/free-riding Chinese triad Food security – All people at all times have physical and economic access to sufficient, self-nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active an d healthy life. (UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization) – Peak oil, peak water, peak phosphorus, peak grain, and peak fish Green revolution Problems in beginning of 20th c: not producing enough food to feed expanding population – Green Revolution: 1950-1984 – Development of high-yielding varieties of cereal grains – Expansion of irrigation infrastructure – Hybridized seeds & – Synthetic fertilizers & – Pesticides to farmers in developing countries – Transformed agriculture around the globe – World agricultural production more than doubled (world grain production increased by 250%) – Increased fossil fuel-based energy use: – Natural gas (for production of synthetic fertilizers) – Oil (for development of pesticides) – Hydrocarbon fuelled irrigation Unsustainable? (Malthusian argument) – May not necessarily increase food security (other political causes) – Promotion of monoc ultures, hunger vs malnutrition – Benefited wealthier farmers at the expense of poorer ones => urban migration – Extensive use and abuse of pesticides and fertilizers associated with negative health effects (cancer) – Land degradation, soil nutrients depletion Earth’s carrying capacity – No one knows!!! The Future of Food – Film watched in class, google if can’t remember GMOs Montreal Protocol – The 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer mandated that industrialized countries reduce their production and use of the five most widely used CFCs by 50 percent. – Delegates agree to give developing countries a ten-year grace period, allowing them to increase their use of CFCs before taking on commitments – Without the Montreal Protocol, global CFC consumption would have reached about 3 million tons in 2010 and 8 million tons in 2060, resulting in a 50 percent depletion of the ozone layer by 203 5 – Montreal Protocol currently calls for a complete phaseout of HCFCs by 2030 (does not place any restriction on HFCs)Arms Trade Treaty – 2003, Control Arms Campaign was launched (Controlarms. org) – 2006, Control Arms handed over a global petition called â€Å"Million Faces† to the UN Secretary General Kofi Annan 2006 – 2006, 153 states vote resolution 61/89 requesting the UN Secretary-General to seek the views of Member States (U. S. votes against, national controls better) – 2009, UN General Assembly launches a time frame for the negotiation of the Arms Trade Treaty. U. S. osition overturned – 2-27 July, 2012 (New York) – Currently under final negotiations – Require states to have national mechanisms for express authorization of international transfers of arms – Prohibit transfers of arms that could violate human rights and international law – Treaty Failure: – United States said it â€Å"needed more time† to review the short, 11-page treaty text (Obama administration torpedoed the treaty exactly one week after the massacre in Aurora, Colorado) Not to export weapons to countries that are under an arms embargo, or to export weapons that would facilitate â€Å"the commission of genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes† or other violations of international humanitarian law. – Exports of arms are banned if they will facilitate â€Å"gender-based violence or violence against children† or be used for â€Å"transnational organized crime. † – The sides, now: – Nearly 120 countries, led by Mexico, issued a joint statement on Monday saying â€Å"the overwhelming majority of (U. N. ) Member States agree with us on the necessity and the urgency of adopting a strong Arms Trade Treaty.Our voice must be heard. † – The five permanent Security Council members – the United States, Britain, France, China and Russia â⠂¬â€œ issued their own joint statement of support for a treaty that â€Å"sets the highest possible common standards by which states will regulate the international transfer of conventional arms. † – Important Points: – Ammunition. – Exports of ammunition are covered in the draft treaty but not imports. – Self-defense. – Some major arms-importing states (Middle East), expressed concern that their ability to import weapons could suffer if the treaty comes into force. Exemptions. – There are a number of scenarios under which arms deals would be exempt in the current draft, such as defense cooperation agreements (India) – and gifts, loans and leases of weapons. – Reporting. – Current draft says countries will send reports to the U. N. on their international arms trade but does not call for them to be made public. China, Iran and others do not want that information disseminated openly. – The NRA says the treaty would undermine gun ownership rights under the Second Amendment to the U. S. Constitution. MalnourishmentObstacles to cooperation on environmental issues (regime, actor, general) National Identity – National identity is inherently political – Defined as a sense of belonging to a nation and a belief in its political aspirations – Often, but not always, develops from existing ethnic identity – Sense enhancers: – Common history, territory, culture, economy, rights – Why form? – Ethnic group may feel oppressed – Ethnic group may form a minority population – These conditions may call for self-government Boat people Ozone success – The 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer mandated that industrialized countries reduce their production and use of the five most widely used CFCs by 50 percent. – Delegates agree to give developing countries a ten-year grace period, allowing them to increa se their use of CFCs before taking on commitments – New scientific evidence late 1987 – scientists announced that CFCs probably were responsible for the ozone hole – 1988, satellite data revealed that stratospheric ozone above the heavily populated Northern Hemisphere had begun to thin – Changes in the pattern of economic interests Du Pont announced that they would soon be able to produce CFC substitutes – Followed the next year by other large chemical manufacturers, including several in Europe – Major producers no longer opposed a CFC phase-out – Lobbied for extended transition periods and against controls on potential substitutes – Particularly hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)—a class of CFC substitutes that deplete ozone but at a significantly reduced rate. – The ozone regime stands as the strongest and most effective global environmental regime. – The worldwide consumption of CFCs, which was about 1. m illion tons in 1986, was approximately 100,000 tons in 2010. – Without the Montreal Protocol, global CFC consumption would have reached about 3 million tons in 2010 and 8 million tons in 2060, resulting in a 50 percent depletion of the ozone layer by 2035 – HCFCs, and HFCs, are now thought to contribute to anthropogenic global warming – Up to 10,000 times more potent greenhouse gases than carbon dioxide – Montreal Protocol currently calls for a complete phaseout of HCFCs by 2030 (does not place any restriction on HFCs) Restaveks (or stay-withs) 300,000 children in domestic bondage in Haiti – Forced – Unpaid Overcropping – Deplete soil by continuously growing crops on it Overpopulation – Carrying capacity – Estimates vary widely – Inadequate fresh water – Depletion of natural resources, especially fossil fuels – Increased levels of air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination – Deforestat ion and loss of ecosystems – Changes in atmospheric composition and consequent global warming – Irreversible loss of arable land and increases in desertification – Mass species extinctions from reduced habitat in tropical forests due to lash-and-burn techniques (140,000 species lost per year – High infant and child mortality. – Intensive industrial farming: evolution and spread of antibiotic resistant bacteria diseases – Increased chance of the emergence of new epidemics and pandemics. – Low life expectancy in countries with fastest growing populations. – Unhygienic living conditions – Increased levels of warfare – Elevated crime rate – Less Personal Freedom / More Restrictive Laws. Demographic Transition – If standard of living and life expectancy increase, family sizes and birth rates decline Later ages of marriage, careers outside child rearing and domestic work, decreased need of children in indu strialized settings – Led to increased worry about aging populations and decreased worry about future impact of population growth – BUT, after a certain level of development the fertility increases again! – Fertility-opportunity hypothesis Food vs. fuel Precision farming – Soil erosion dropped, no-till seed planting – Drip irrigation, level fields (eliminate runoff) – Global positioning: efficient harvest, less chemicals Citizenship Citizenship: individual’s or group’s relationship to the state – Swear allegiance to the state – State provides benefits – People have obligations in return – Ethnicity is fixed but citizenship is not – Can be changed by individual or state – Potentially more inclusive concept than ethnicity or national identity – Three (ethnicity, citizenship, national identity) are often connected—an ethnic group forms the nation, and they represent the citiz ens of a country Nationalism – Nationalism as a pride in one’s people and belief in sovereign destiny Seek to create or preserve one’s own nation (political group) through an independent state – Sovereignty is thus key – Example: Great Britain – Governments determine nationality – 1707 – The United Kingdom came into existence – Yet there was no British nation since the people of the English isles were thinking of themselves as English, Welsh, Scots, or Irish. – Propagation of the dominant English culture and language through the years created a sense of English identity. – During the 19th century non-English cultures were suffocated. Global fundamentalism Return to traditional religious values as a reaction to modernity and global culture – Restoration of sacred tradition as basis for society – Cultural authenticity vs universalizing global culture – Global phenomenon – Modern ph enomenon – Fundamentalism vs globalization or fundamentalism as part of globalization? AIDS – Peaked in 2005 with 3. 4 million deaths – ~35 million infected – 14,500 new infections daily – Approximately 8000 deaths daily (3million/year) – > 90% new infections in Global South – Global responses – Millennium Development Goal 6 – Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases Government-subsidized antiretroviral medications (Brazil, Argentina etc) – Samaritan’s Purse – The importance of Global Health Partnerships – Improving access to medicines – Financing health activities – BUT, primarily â€Å"vertical† (focus on specific diseases, and development/distribution of medicines) – Retroactive: does not focus on improving health care systems and primary care – Multiplicity of donors and actors: not aligned with government priorities International Organized Crime †“ Effort to exploit mechanisms of globalization – Transportation and communications technology Aided by deregulation – Possible through corruption of authorities, unethical practices of individuals and corporations – Extremely large profits (and high risk) – Global cities are main areas of activity (New York, London, Tokyo, etc. ) – Using financial services to disguise criminal activities – Defy the state, offer parallel black market structure Deforestation – Increases contact between humans and pathogens – Decreases natural predators of diseases vectors – Increases in malaria (runoff water stagnant in pools) (mosquitos) – Loss of biodiversity Arms Trafficking Lack of international treaty regulating legal arms trade – Illegal arms trade – Arms fuel conflict and crime – $60 billion a year industry – Lack of transparent data – UN: attempt to â€Å"crush illicit trade of small ar ms† – Cold War – Preoccupation with nuclear arms control – Small arms were not as widely disseminated – End of Cold War – Small arms â€Å"surplus† – Warsaw Pact/NATO upgrades – Difficulty in negotiations? – U. S. position – Nuclear weapons easier to negotiate Human trafficking – Labor trafficking – Sex trafficking – Victims are primarily women and children – Organ trafficking Trafficking of babies and pregnant women – Baby farm in Nigeria: sold for illegal adoption or for use in ritual witchcraft Child Soldiers Slavery – â€Å"A slave is a human being forced to work through fraud or threat of violence for no pay beyond subsistence. † (Benjamin Skinner) – â€Å"Do you want a job? † – Modern slavery: – More slaves now than ever before in history, 27 million – Each year 50,000 children and teenagers enter the US against their w ill for purposes of sexual slavery (CIA est. ) – Over 2 million trafficked slaves forced into prostitution and labor around the world 10 million slaves in South Asia (many through more than one generations) until they pay off their â€Å"debt† – 300,000 children in domestic bondage in Haiti Small arms – Over half a million people are killed each year with small arms across the world – In the United States 34,000 people are killed per year by small arms – The cost of small arms on public health, in Latin America at 14% of GDP, 10% of GDP in Brazil, and 25% of GDP in Colombia. – Registered homicide rates for Colombia, the United States, Brazil, and Venezuela among males aged 15–24 have doubled in the last ten yearsMonocultures – The agricultural practice of producing or growing a single crop or plant species over a wide area and for a large number of consecutive years. – It is widely used in modern industrial agricu lture and its implementation has allowed for large harvests from minimal labor. – Monocultures can lead to the quicker spread of diseases, where a uniform crop is susceptible to a pathogen Sustainable agriculture – http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Sustainable_agriculture Environmental change and conflict – http://www. accord. org. za/downloads/ct/ct_2011_2. pdf Environmental security Environmental change is an important source of social conflict – Many societies face more dangers from environmental change than from traditional military threats – Security policies must be redefined to take account of these new realities – Only by framing the environmental problem in security terms can the necessary level of governmental attention and social mobilization be ensured – Security institutions could contribute directly to environmental protection, given their financial resources, monitoring and intelligence-gathering capabilities, and scientif ic and technological expertise – Is there enough evidence to support the claim that ecological change is, or will be, a major new source of conflict? – Proponents: – Environmental scarcities are already contributing to violent conflicts in many parts of the developing world. These conflicts are probably the early signs of an upsurge of violence in the coming decades that will be induced or aggravated by scarcity – Opponents – Environmental problems are a symptom of conflict-prone social systems rather than a root cause of conflict – Are the advantages of linking environmental problems to security concerns worth the risk of militarizing a society's responses to environmental problems? Risks undercutting the globalist and common fate understanding that may be necessary to solve the problem – If pollution a national security problem, then pollution by other countries worse than home born – It is analytically misleading to think of environmental degradation as a national security threat. – Environmental degradation and violence are very different types of threats – Organizations that provide protection from violence differ greatly from those in environmental protection – Military organizations are secretive, extremely hierarchical and centralized, and normally deploy vastly expensive, highly specialized and advanced technologies – Is environmental security an idea with more appeal in the North than the South? An excuse to continue the North's longstanding practice of military and economic intervention – Focus on the South is a way for the North to deny its own responsibility – Calls to link the environment with security raise deep suspicions about ulterior motives Concern, contractual environment, capacity – da fuk? Fertility opportunity hypothesis – Fertility follows perceived economic opportunity – Against food aid, and development Transnational organized crime groups – Operate above and below the state – Create demand – Reach to the marginalized, impoverished and other â€Å"losers† of globalization – Use market strategies: – Hierarchically structured – Strategic alliances – investing/laundering capital – New growth areas (ex. umping toxic waste in developing countries and then negotiating lucrative contracts for the cleanup industry) – R&D – Modern accounting systems, information technologies, insuring against risk Global health partnerships Global food crisis – Enough food in the world to feed everyone but†¦ – 925 million people experience hunger – 2/3 of these people are in Asia and the Pacific region – Highest concentrations in India, China, DRC, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, Ethiopia – 5 million children under 5 die of hunger in developing countries – Charity may help immediate problem but is no long-term sustainable solution – Causes for food crisis 1: Natural disasters – Floods, tropical storms, and, especially, long droughts – More common and more intense (global warming) – Wars – Population displacement – Famine used as a weapon – Fields and water wells mined or contaminated – Poverty trap – Lack of seed money, land and agricultural education – Trapped in poverty by hunger – Causes for food crisis 2: – Lack of agricultural infrastructure – Lack of roads, irrigation systems, warehouses – Emphasis on urban development – Overexploitation of the environment – Poor farming practices – Deforestation – Overcropping – Overgrazing – Economic downturns FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Policy and technical assistance to developing countries for food security, nutrition and agriculture – Forum for negotiation of a greements and debate on policies Fukuyama (the end of history) – Francis Fukuyama, â€Å"The End of History† – â€Å"The triumph of the West†¦an unabashed victory of economic & political liberalism†¦& the total exhaustion of viable systematic alternatives to Western liberalism. † – Liberal democracy will make the world safer – Democracies do not go to war against each other – Globalization – interdependence – Great faith in International Organizations – Washington Consensus – Critics: – Environmentalists – Marxists – Anarco-capitalism – Etc.

Naturalistic Observation Essay

? Naturalistic Observation In order to study human development and perform naturalistic observation I went to the mall. I selected a 9-year-old white girl as the subject for my observation. I observed the subject for 30 minutes. During my observation the subject was not interrupted and was not aware of my study. The girl was spending time with her mother and brother at the mall. She was enjoying herself. She played some games with her brother. The games included jumping and running. During one of the games the girl had a short conversation with her brother. After that the girl started drawing pictures in her notebook. Mother of the subject had a very satisfied expression on her face when she saw the drawing her daughter made. During the whole observational period the girl looked relaxed and happy. The approximate height of the subject is 4ft 2in, the approximate weight is 70 lbs. She was well-dressed, her clothes were new and tidy. The girl was physically developed according to her age. During my whole observation the subject was very active, the girl was running and jumping, it was obvious that she had a good coordination. The child was also drawing pictures in her notebook, so I came to the conclusion that both her gross motor skills and fine manipulative skills were developed properly. Cognitive development of the subject was on a sufficient level. I observed the girl when she was buying an ice cream, she saw that one of the portions was on the bigger plate, but she chose one on the smaller plate because she liked the shape of it more. The girl was able to understand that if something changes in appearance it does not mean that the quantity of it changed. According to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the girl was on the concrete operational stage. It is the very important stage, because the child starts thinking logically and operationally. Being on this particular stage is absolutely adequate for children at the age of 9. The girl was emotionally and socially well developed. She obeyed the rules of the game and the rules of the mall while playing. During my observation the girl demonstrated that she was able to work in a team with her brother. She was friendly and well socialized. According to Erikson’s stages of social and emotional development this kind of behavior means that the girl was on the ‘school age’ stage. It is absolutely normal to be on this stage of social and emotional development at the age of 9. After my observation I came to the conclusion that the subject meets the milestones and stages for the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development. Judging from the drawing that the girl made we can assume that the girl is gifted. According to my naturalistic observation there is nothing unusual in the development of the girl. According to her age she is absolutely adequate. The observation was a very interesting and informative process. It gave me the opportunity to apply different theories of development. The biggest advantage of this psychological method is the opportunity to observe the subject in the natural surrounding and watch his natural behavior. To sum up, during my naturalistic observation I applied Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and Erikson’s theory of emotional and social development. Both of these theories gave me the opportunity to understand the subject better. According to my observation, all physical skills of the girl were developed properly. After analysis I came to the conclusion that the subject is on the concrete operational stage of cognitive development, and on the ‘school age’ stage of social and emotional development. The girl is normally developed according to her age.